Timeline: How Creationism Has "Evolved"
Table of Contents
Pardon the
irony, but creationism is evolving. To be sure, the goal of the
movement, to force public schools to teach certain religious beliefs as
science, has never wavered. But the movement’s strategies and methods
have evolved over time in an effort to adapt to new
conditions.
These strategies have changed for two reasons. First,
the Supreme Court has made clear that it is unconstitutional for public
schools to teach religious belief as science. Second, and just as
important, Americans have come to understand the important role science
education plays in our country’s security and international
competitiveness.
Creationists have adapted to these developments
by changing not their agenda, but the language they use to talk about
it. The original argument, that schools should teach nothing that
contradicted a literal reading of the Bible, has given way to the
argument that creationism — now called “Intelligent
Design” — is science, a claim that the vast majority of
scientists dismiss as preposterous. Some have even tried to claim that
evolution is itself a religion.
Students should learn about
religion in History, Social Studies, Art and Literature courses, but
anti-evolution activists have worked hard to insert religious
instruction into science classrooms at the expense of quality
education.
When Darwin proposed the modern theory of evolution,
creationists instantly opposed it on religious grounds. For years the
creationism movement was clear in its message: evolution is wrong
because it contradicts the Bible. Creationists in this period did not
pretend to be concerned with science: they opposed outright any attempt
to teach evolution in the classroom.
1859 — The Origin of the Species is published
Darwin’s The Origin of Species sets forth the modern theory of
evolution and its chief mechanism, natural selection. Many Christian
fundamentalists of the day object immediately to what they see as the
book’s contradiction of Biblical literalism.
1913 — Flood geology first proposed
As acceptance of
evolution grows, a Seventh-day Adventist and amateur geologist named
George McCready Price writes The Fundamentals of Geology. Using
profoundly flawed logic, he argues that the vast majority of fossils
must have been created during the Great Flood described in the book of
Genesis, and that geological dating methods must be “corrected” to
conform to that fact. He then uses the newly “corrected” rock dating to
“prove” that assertion about the fossils was correct. Initially, flood
geology has few proponents even within the creationist
community.
1914 — Evolution Appears in Textbooks
George William Hunter's A Civic Biology, the book that is later
used in biology courses in Dayton, Tenn., is published. A Civic
Biology describes evolution as "the belief that simple forms of life
on the earth slowly and gradually gave rise to those more complex and
that thus ultimately the most complex forms came into
existence."
1923 — The First Anti-Evolution Bills
Led by three-time
presidential nominee William Jennings Bryan, a campaign to outlaw the
teaching of evolution in public schools succeeds in convincing the
legislatures of Oklahoma and Florida to pass anti-evolution legislation.
Bryan is unapologetic about the religious basis of his crusade. "What
shall it profit a man," he writes, "if he shall gain all the learning of
the schools and lose his faith in God?" In 1925, Tennessee passes
similar legislation, resulting in the famous Scopes Trial, pitting Bryan
against legendary lawyer Clarence Darrow.
1940s — Teaching of evolution hits low
Due to the political, commercial, and legal attacks of Biblical
literalists, the number of schools teaching evolution hit a new low
point.
1947 and 1948 — Supreme Court on Government Endorsement of
Religion
In 1947 the Supreme Court makes clear that government
may not aid religion generally, or prefer one religion over another. A
1948 ruling forbids religious instruction in public schools.
1950 — Pope Pius XII rejects Biblical literalism
Calling
evolution an “open question,” Pope Pius XII rejects literal Biblical
creationism as the sole explanation for biological origins,
acknowledging the importance of scientific principles in conjunction
with spiritual faith.
1957 — Sputnik
The perceived threat posed by Sputnik focuses America’s attention on the
importance of a sound math and science education. Popular support for
comprehensive science education spreads and leads even many
ultra-conservative school districts to teach scientifically accepted
evolution curriculum.
1961 — The Genesis Flood is published
John v.
Whitcomb, Jr. and Henry Morris publish The Genesis Flood, which
attempts to demonstrate that Biblical literalism is supported by
science. The book, which reintroduces Price’s flood geology, is met with
near-unanimous criticism from the scientific community.
1966 — Creationists Demand Equal Time
Religious activist
Nell Segraves demands that the California State Board of Education grant
equal time in California schools for creationism. She bases her request
on a provision in the Civil Rights Act that allowed teachers to mention
religion so long as they did not promote specific doctrines. The request
is denied.
1968 — Epperson v. Arkansas
In Epperson v.
Arkansas, the United States Supreme Court invalidates an Arkansas
statute that prohibited the teaching of evolution in public schools and
universities.
As Americans came to value the teaching of authentic
science in the science classroom, creationists changed their argument.
Instead of opposing the teaching of evolution and science per se, they
claimed that science proves that the first chapters of Genesis are
literally true. The scientific community has consistently criticized
this as pseudo-science.
1970 — California Science Framework gives birth to creation
science
Reacting to now widespread opinion and the Supreme
Court’s finding in Epperson that science classes should teach
scientific theories, the California State Board of education approves
language couching “creationism” in scientific vocabulary. The board
writes, “Creation in scientific terms is not a religious or
philosophical belief.” This moves creationism from religion to
pseudo-science.
1970 — Creation-Science Research Center is founded
Continuing her effort to dress up creationism in scientific clothes,
Segraves heads the effort to form the Creation-Science Research Center,
which is affiliated with Tim LaHaye’s Christian Heritage College in San
Diego. Henry Morris is also part of the effort but disagreements over
the organization’s political role lead to the Center’s ending its
affiliation with Morris and LaHaye in 1972.
1972 — Institute for Creation Research is started
Henry
Morris founds the Institute for Creation Research, affiliated with the
Christian Heritage College, dedicated to refuting the theory of
evolution and developing a scientific basis for the Biblical account of
creation.
1974 — Scientific Creationism
Morris publishes his book
Scientific Creationism, a bedrock text of the movement, in two
editions: one for public schools that makes no explicit references to
the Bible, and another that includes a chapter on "Creation according to
Scripture." Creationists now argue that science can confirm the account
of creation as given literally in the Bible.
1978 — Wendell Bird
Yale law student Wendell Bird publishes a
strategy for introducing creationism into public schools across the
country. His article, “Freedom of Religion and Science Instruction in
Public Schools” in the Yale Law Journal, claims that “scientific
creationism” is not religion and that not teaching it would violate the
free exercise rights of Biblical literalists.
1981 — Equal time bills
After graduating, Bird works at the
Institute for Creation Science on equal time resolutions that the
Institute hopes will be adopted by school boards. These resolutions are
eventually adapted for state legislators to introduce. Both Arkansas and
Louisiana approve versions of these model bills. The bill in Arkansas
alludes to a worldwide flood, but does not use any explicitly Biblical
language. The Louisiana bill makes no reference to flood geology even
though it provides the underpinning for “scientific
creationism.”
1987 — Edwards v. Aguillard
Dealing a crippling blow to creation science, in Edwards v.
Aguillard, the U.S. Supreme Court declares Louisiana's "Creationism
Act" unconstitutional. The law prohibited the teaching of evolution in
public schools, unless “creation science” was also taught.
After the failure of “creation science,” creationists
change tactics again. This time the movement focuses less on teaching
creationism, and more on attacking evolution. By claiming that
evolution is not universally accepted in the scientific community,
creationists seek to discredit Darwin’s theory simply by confusing the
issue and muddying the waters.
1987 — A Good Point...
Paul MacKinney, chairman of the
Midwest Creation Fellowship, predicts that in the wake of the Supreme
Court decision barring “equal time” for creationism, the movement will
need to change its public relations and legal strategy in order to
portray itself as a victim of discrimination. Soon after the
Edwards decision was issued, the Institute proposes that
opponents of evolution develop an “arguments against evolution”
strategy, which is intended to undermine evolution, if not promote
creationism outright.
1989 — Of Pandas and People
Of Pandas and
People: The Central Question of Biological Origins, by Percival
Davis and Dean Kenyon, is published. The biology “textbook” promotes the
idea that life must have been created by an “intelligent designer.” The
book is widely promoted by Christian Right leader James Dobson.
1991 — "Intelligent Design”
Darwin on Trial, by
U.C. Berkeley law professor and born-again Christian Phillip E. Johnson
is published. It becomes the handbook for the Intelligent Design
movement and actually coins the term “Intelligent Design.”
1992 — The Wedge Strategy
At a Southern Methodist University conference called “Darwinism:
Scientific Inference or Philosophical Preference?” a new strategy is
proposed. The idea grows into the so-called “wedge strategy” set forth
in a 1999 memorandum by the Discovery Institute (see below). The wedge
strategy aims to insert religion into public schools as the first step
towards returning American culture to a pre-scientific state that
accepts religious, not scientific, explanations for natural
phenomena.
1996 — The Discovery Institute
The Discovery Institute
establishes the Center for the Renewal of Science and Culture to promote
Intelligent Design using the Wedge Strategy.
1997 — Freiler v. Tangipahoa Parish Bd of Ed
In
Freiler v. Tangipahoa Parish Board of Education, the United
States District Court for the Eastern District of Louisiana rules
unconstitutional a public school board policy requiring teachers to read
aloud a disclaimer of endorsement of the scientific theory of evolution
whenever they teach about evolution, ostensibly to promote "critical
thinking." Besides striking down the disclaimer policy, the decision is
noteworthy for recognizing that "Intelligent Design" is an alternate
description of "creation science." The United States Court of Appeals
for the Fifth Circuit upholds the ruling and the Supreme Court declines
to hear an appeal of the decision.
1999 — Bleeding Kansas
The Kansas State Board of
Education votes 6-4 to accept diminished science standards that removed
virtually all reference to evolution.
2000 — LeVake v. Independent School District
A
state judge in Minnesota dismisses the case of Rodney LeVake v
Independent School District No. 656, et al. High school biology
teacher LeVake had claimed a constitutional right to teach "evidence
both for and against the theory" of evolution, contrary to the school
district’s science curriculum. The decision is upheld Minnesota Court
of Appeals and further review is denied by the Minnesota and U.S.
Supreme Courts.
2001 — The Santorum Amendment
Phillip Johnson, a senior fellow at the Discovery Institute, helps draft
the Santorum Amendment to what later becomes the No Child Left Behind
Act, promoting the teaching of Intelligent Design. The
amendment — which encourages science teachers to teach criticisms of
evolution — is ultimately stripped from the bill, although
Intelligent Design proponents consider the effort a victory.
2003 — Johnson Comes Clean (Finally)
Johnson states on a
Christian radio talk show that "Our strategy has been to change the
subject a bit, so that we can get the issue of intelligent design, which
really means the reality of God, before the academic world and into the
schools."
2004 — Intelligent Design Comes to Dover
Lawyers for the
Thomas More Center, a right-wing Catholic legal group, persuade the
Dover, Penn., school board to teach Intelligent Design in science
classes and promise to defend the school board from the inevitable
lawsuit.
2005 — Bush Sides Against Science
In August, President
Bush states that schoolchildren should be taught about Intelligent
Design along with evolution as competing theories. “Teach the
controversy” becomes the latest mantra of Creationists.
2005 — Court Rejects Intelligent Design
From October to
December, in Kitzmiller v. Dover, a team of lawyers, on behalf of
eleven parents of Dover students, argues that Intelligent Design
undermines basic definitions of science and is nothing more than
religious belief under a new name. The court rules that Intelligent
Design is not science and, as with creationism, that teaching
Intelligent Design as science violates the constitutional separation of
church and state. Even before the ruling is made, all six
pro–Intelligent Design Dover School Board members are voted off
the school board and replaced by a pro-evolution slate.
2006 — Kansas Tug-of-War
In 2002, an election had turned the board back over to pro-science
members, who returned the state curriculum to scientifically accepted
standards. A 2004 election changed the board’s make-up again. In
November 2005, the board changes the state’s science standards to add
substantial criticism of evolution. In 2006 primary elections, moderate
candidates are again victorious, guaranteeing a pro-science majority
after the November general election.
2006 — Evolutionary Biology Disappears from Federal Grant
List
In a list of majors eligible for federal Smart
Grants — named for the National Science and Mathematics Access to
Retain Talent program — the Department of Education leaves off
Evolutionary Biology. Majors are listed by Classification of
Instructional Programs (CIP) codes, but the DOE leaves a blank line for
number 26.1303, the CIP code for Evolutionary Biology.
Despite defeat after defeat, creationists have continued
to attack science and refused to accept the constitutional mandate that
prohibits government from endorsing any particular religious viewpoint.
Over the course of the fight to ensure science’s critical place in the
classroom, anti-Darwin activists have reshaped and renamed their
tactics, but it’s clear that their goal — to discredit science and
promote a specific religious worldview in public schools — has
remained the same. No doubt creationists will continue their efforts as
the country continues to stave off attacks on quality science as an
accepted standard for schools and textbooks.
Learning about religion is an important part of a high school education,
but religious instruction shouldn’t shortchange science. Religion is,
and should be, discussed, in classes on World Religions, the History of
Religion, and art and literature classes that draw on religion’s
legacy.
People For the American Way Foundation is committed to protecting
quality science education and will continue to inform Americans about
the dangers of teaching religious beliefs in public school science
classrooms.
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